We have already discussed about the importance of dehumidifying your home or basement. However, it is also essential to know how these devices work in order to avoid any hassles. Humidity is one of the primary reasons why we end up installing dehumidifiers in our homes, especially in closed areas like basements. Moreover, if you live in the equatorial or coastal regions, you are sure to experience humid conditions most of the time.

Humidity is a result of relative humidity where moisture is suspended in the air. A dehumidifier is a device that helps reduce humidity in any building or room by removing moisture from the air. Dehumidifiers play a vital role in preventing mold, bacteria and biological  allergens, musty odors, and furniture, carpeting, storage box mildew damage that arise when humidity levels are above 50%.

Principle

The principle that lies behind the dehumidifier is simple. It works on the same principle as the freezer, refrigerator or air conditioner. For example, on a hot day under the scorching sun, when you have a cold drink you can see tiny droplets of water forming on the surface of the container due to a process called condensation. In the same way, a dehumidifier condenses the moisture present in the air with a fan that blows the warm air onto coils of cold metal. The condensed moisture is then collected in a bucket or holding tank in the form of water. The cold air is then blown onto the warm coils and brings the temperature back to normal.

Components

A basic dehumidifier consists of the following components for normal functioning:

1. Fan Compressor: It is the quiet motor of the cooling system that is found at the bottom of the dehumidifier and helps in cooling the dehumidifier coils.

2. Condenser: It is a series of finned coils, similar to a radiator, and located near the circulating fan.

3. Evaporator: This is also a set of coils located behind the dehumidifier and just above the water-collection container. It captures and collects heat that is generated by the cooling process.

4. Reservoir: This is where moisture that is condensed from the air is collected.

Most dehumidifiers also have a humidistat that helps in setting the desired level of humidity. A humidistat consists of a sensing element and a relay amplifier. A sensing element has two alternate metal conductors that cause electrical resistance when there are variations in relative humidity. The relay amplifier measures the resistance and is responsible for the utilization of the dehumidifier based on the measurement.

Methodology

The fan compressor in the dehumidifier extracts the moisture from the air into the dehumidifier. As we all know, warm air can hold more moisture as compared to cold air. When relative humidity is high, the amount of moisture in the air is also high. The warm air is drawn toward the cold coils in the dehumidifier where condensation takes places by a condenser. The amount of air that is moved by a dehumidifier is measured in cubic feet of air per minute (CFM). Hence, when the CFM level is high, it becomes easier for the dehumidifier to remove large amounts of moisture. The size of a dehumidifier is also important in determining the reduction of humidity. The smaller the dehumidifier, the lesser the capacity to remove moisture. After condensation, the water is collected in a holding tank or reservoir, which is either attached to or separated from the dehumidifier.

It can be quite difficult to extract moisture from closed areas like basements and crawl spaces, since the temperature will be low. In such cases, it is wise to choose and buy a dehumidifier that is specially designed for such areas. In an environment where relative humidity is above 50%, the function of a dehumidifier becomes easier due to large amounts of moisture present in the air. On the other hand, an environment with low level of humidity will require a powerful dehumidifier to accomplish the task.

Types of Dehumidifiers

1. Mechanical or Refrigerative Dehumidifiers: It absorbs moisture over a refrigerated coil with a small fan.

2. Desiccative Dehumidifiers: Desiccant materials are used by initially expose them to high relative humidity in order to absorb moisture. The materials are then exposed to low relative humidity to extract moisture from them.

3. Air Conditioners: They decrease the temperature in the room in order to condense and liquefy the moisture in the air.

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

References

1. http://www.dehumidifierexperts.com/article.php/how-dehumidifiers-work/?id=17
2. http://www.repairclinic.com/Dehumidifier-How-Things-Work
3. http://home.howstuffworks.com/dehumidifier.htm
4. http://www.ehow.com/how-does_5001686_whole-house-dehumidifiers-work.html
5. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/basement-dehumidifiers.html

On a cold winter morning or evening, you must have felt tiny droplets of water in the atmosphere or for that matter seen water droplets in the air in the form of fog on cold beverage containers during the hot season. But have you ever wondered what lies behind this natural phenomenon? The answer is dew point, which we will discuss in detail in this article.

Dew point, or otherwise better known as dew point temperature, is the temperature at which the liquid and gaseous phases of a material present in a gas, such as water in air, are in equilibrium at a given gas pressure. In the case of water, the temperature at which both evaporation and condensation of water take place are the same. An interesting point to note about dew point is that it is related with evaporation, condensation and relative humidity.

How Does Temperature Affect Dew Point?

It is a known fact that warmer air can hold or suspend more water vapor in the air than cold air. When the air cools down, it naturally loses its ability to hold moisture in the air. Dew point temperature is also known as the saturation temperature of water vapor in the air, the reason being that when the temperature is lowered from the saturation temperature, water vapor condenses faster than it evaporates. On the other hand, when the temperature is increased from the saturation temperature, water vapor evaporates faster than it condenses. At the saturation temperature, the evaporation and condensation rates of water vapor in the atmosphere are at equilibrium.

Dew Point vs. Humidity

As mentioned in our previous article, relative humidity is the amount of moisture or water vapor that is suspended in the atmosphere. Dew point and humidity have been found to be related and are dependent on the amount of water vapor in the air and the total amount of water vapor that the air can hold at a given temperature. This is the main reason why you see tiny droplets of water on cold surfaces during hot weather conditions.

When relative humidity increases, the dew point temperature is closer to the current air temperature and when relative humidity decreases, the dew point temperature is at par with the current air temperature. When dew point temperature and real temperature are the same, relative humidity is 100%. At this point of time, fog, mist, dew and clouds start forming due to condensation and this means that the air is holding 100% moisture.

Basic Points to Know about Dew Point

• Dew point temperature can never be higher than the current temperature.
• When the temperature is the same as the dew point temperature and then starts falling, the dew point temperature must simultaneous decrease.
• The amount of moisture in the air increases with increase in the dew point temperature.
• Relative humidity of around 100% is an indication of dew, frost, fog and rain.
• Regions around the Equator experience high dew points, whereas the desert and polar regions experience low dew points.

Applications

• Heat transfer by convection
• Combustion of fossil fuels and combustion engineering
• Drying of paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, tobacco, leather, printed goods, textiles and grain
• Energy efficiency in chemical manufacturing processes
• Prevention of corrosion in iron, steel and other metals

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

References

1. http://www.temperatures.com/dewpoint.html
2. http://www.weatherquestions.com/What_is_dewpoint_temperature.htm
3. http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/idm3020/tut_folder/nick_tutorial/

Humidity

In order to understand relative humidity, let’s look at what humidity is all about. The term humidity is mainly used for the moisture that is present in the atmosphere. Understanding humidity in terms of geography, water in the rivers, lakes, oceans and other water bodies is absorbed by solar radiations when heat is generated by a process called evaporation. This process results in large amounts of water evaporating into water vapor present in the atmosphere. Water vapor condenses in the form of rain, snow and clouds by a process called condensation. You can read more about condensation in our previous article, “What is Condensation?”

Relative Humidity

Researchers have tried to find out different ways to measure humidity in order to analyze significant factors like climatic conditions in different regions. Among the different ways of calculating humidity, relative humidity is the most commonly used method. Relative humidity is basically the amount of water vapor or moisture that is present in the atmosphere. It is the amount of water vapor present in the air at any given time relative to the amount that is required to saturate the atmosphere,

i.e., Relative Humidity = actual vapor density/saturation vapor density × 100%

If the presence of water vapor goes beyond saturation, it condenses as dew. Relative humidity increases when the unsaturated air is cooled. When the air reaches saturation point, relative humidity is 100%.

Considerations When Measuring Humidity

Have you ever thought why it is essential to check the level of humidity? There are basically two reasons, maintenance of hygiene and energy efficiency. Lack of control in humidity leads to mold formation, corrosion and persistent condensation on cold surface. The ideal and maximum level of humidity is between 30 and 40%.

Humidity occurs as a result of fluctuations in temperature. For this reason, it is necessary to consider temperature while measuring relative humidity. As mentioned earlier, temperature is responsible for saturation vapor pressure. High and low levels of humidity have a significant effect on relative humidity, as well as saturation pressure. Therefore, the exact temperature makes the comparison in humidity measurement values easier.

Another factor to take into consideration when measuring relative humidity is the location and stabilization. Short distances can also have variations in relative humidity and it is always wise to have patience till the conditions are stabilized, including temperature.

How Do We Measure Humidity?

There are a number of devices that can be used to measure humidity. Relative humidity can be measured by the following instruments:

1. Sling Psychrometer: It consists of two thermometers, a wet-bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer. The thermometers function on the basis of the evaporation and cooling that takes place in the atmosphere. When evaporation occurs, the temperatures in both the thermometers show different values and their differences are noted down (wet-bulb depression) to calculate relative humidity. On the other hand, these thermometers would have the same temperatures if there was no evaporation.

2. Hair Hygrometer: This device is based on the calculation of the differences in the length of strands of hair during humidity. As the hair becomes longer, the humidity also increases.

Importance of Relative Humidity

1. Climate

Relative humidity does play a vital role in climatic conditions, especially when there is a fluctuation in temperature which decides human comfort, health and safety, and technical requirements of machinery and processes.

2. Comfort

Human beings tend to be quite uncomfortable during seasons when the relative humidity is very high. Humid conditions make people perspire to a lesser extent than dry weather conditions. Hence, we feel much warmer during high levels of humidity than lower levels of humidity.

3. Buildings

In order to maintain the temperature in the surroundings, there should be a control in relative humidity. High temperature and low humidity leads to rapid evaporation of water that result in dry soil, quick drying of clothes, dry sweat and shrinkage of wooden furniture that could damage the paint. However, high temperature and high humidity leads to slow evaporation of water which leads to growth of mold and mildew, corrosion, decay and other damp-related issues. Similarly, relative humidity needs to be controlled in buildings such as factories, hospitals, laboratories and other facilities using devices such as humidifiers and dehumidifiers to avoid such issues.

4. Vehicles

You must be wondering as to how vehicles would get affected by humidity. High humidity inside the vehicle can lead to condensation on the windows while driving and electrical problems. Airliners, submersibles and spacecrafts are also prone to condensation, corrosion and health problems such as drying out of mucosa, dry skin and sore eyes.

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

References

1. http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/weather/older/Humidity.html
2. http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8c.html
3. http://www.sensirion.com/images/getFile?id=115
4. http://www.aemc.com/techinfo/appnotes/environmentaltesters/APP-EnvironTesters-Humidity.pdf
5. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/relhum.htm

Condensation is the conversion of water from its gaseous state into its liquid state. There is always some amount of moisture present in the air. During cold weather conditions, the moisture present in the air condenses into tiny droplets of water. In fact, the air that you breathe out can be seen on a cold winter morning. Condensation can also occur on those hot, humid summer days where you would need an air conditioner to cool your home. This may result in hazy windows due to the air conditioning.

Household activities such as cooking, washing and drying clothes are responsible for the excess moisture present in the air within your home. An average family creates around 20 pints of water vapor per day. This can be usually seen in the form of fog, mist, dew or frost in the atmosphere and plays a significant role in the formation of clouds, rain and snow.

Condensation is a result of the fall in temperature of vapor even below its saturation temperature. When warm air rises in the atmosphere and cools down, it loses its ability to hold the water vapor in the air and hence the excess water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets.

What does condensation have to do with basements? Well, it has quite a lot to do with basements. The moisture that forms as a result of condensation can cause rotting window frames, peeling wallpaper and mold on walls, carpets or clothes. This phenomenon occurs where there is no adequate air circulation. You may have noticed mold on your windows, walls, ceilings and furniture a couple of times, especially during the winter season. This also comes along with stale air that gets accumulated within the basement due to lack of ventilation. All these factors lead to aggravation of illnesses such as asthma and bronchitis.

What is the difference between condensation and dampness?

Dampness can be a result of condensation. As mentioned earlier, condensation occurs during cold climatic conditions when the water vapor is surrounded by cold temperature and the moisture content of the air is high. This leads to the growth of mold and mildew which may due to lack of air circulation and insulation. Dampness can also be caused due to other reasons such as leaking drainage pipes, wastes or overflows, cracked walls and ceilings, leakages from the roof where tiles are missing during rains and defective damp course or no damp course.

Condensation in the basement can be caused by the following reasons:

(1) Lack of ventilation, especially during the summers
(2) Lack of insulation, especially during the winters
(3) Inadequate heating in the basement

How to Reduce Condensation or Dampness in the Basement

(1) Allow moisture to move out of your home when cooking, washing or drying clothes and heating by closing doors to avoid circulation of moisture and opening windows to let out the moisture.

(2) Make sure that you ventilate your home to remove moisture by opening windows, using exhaust fans in the kitchen and bathroom to let out the damp air after frying or taking a hot shower, installing air vents wherever possible, cutting breather holes in cupboards and wardrobes and installing ventilators for windows.

(3) Insulate your basement by air sealing, installing insulators in your walls, dehumidifiers, which will keep your rooms warm and simultaneously prevent the entry of moisture and hence avoid dampness. Get effective ways of insulating your basement from our blog article, http://blog.keystonebasementsystems.com/?p=923.

(4) In order to remove mold and mildew from walls, use a fungicide. Clothes and carpets affected by mold can be dry cleaned and shampooed, respectively. Mold and mildew creates a high risk of respiratory problems and gets worse if disturbed by brushing or vacuum cleaning.

(5) Get rid of any kind of moisture immediately by wiping any surface moisture to avoid room for any damage.

(6) Fungicidal paints for the walls will also help in preventing growth of mold and mildew.

So next time you think of basement condensation, you know exactly what to do!

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

References

1. http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/weather/older/condensation.html
2. http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/%28Gh%29/guides/mtr/hyd/cond/home.rxml
3. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IISc-BANG/Heat%20and%20Mass%20Transfer/pdf/M8/Student_Slides_M8.pdf
4. http://www.weatherquestions.com/What_is_condensation.htm
5. http://www.changeworks.org.uk/uploads/wat/Condensation.pdf
6. http://www.polaristechnologies.com/documents/ControllingCondensation.pdf
7. http://www.hollandroofingco.com/files/Facts_About_Condensation2.pdf
8. http://www.barnet.gov.uk/condensation.pdf

Basement drainage systems can be a solution to all your basement problems such as water leakages, bad odor, stagnant air, furniture damage, mold and mildew. These drainage systems can either be installed in the interior or exterior of your home. Different methods are usually implemented for both interior and exterior drainage systems depending on the cause of damage. The following are some of the reliable options you could use to install a drainage system in your home.

1. Interior Basement Drainage System

Most people opt for an interior basement drainage system for a number of reasons that include the affordability to install one inside the basement than outside, the convenience of the job, the minimal time required for installation, no hassles on the availability of services and reliability. Some useful ways of drainage systems that you can consider are:

(a) Concrete walls: An interior drainage channel adhered at the base of the wall and the floor slab is ideal in situations where water tends to enter the basement. Installing the channel is a cost-effective approach, especially for concrete walls with cracks, and works by simply by collecting water into an airtight sump with the help of another channel that is placed on top of the slab. The water then flows through a trap to the sump basin. Although this method is effective for concrete walls, it is not very helpful in the case of masonry walls because water remains in the block cores at floor level and the water level is only lowered to the top of the slab.

(b) Masonry walls: For masonry walls, installing a drainage channel at the base of the wall on top of the footing gets rid of moisture problems inside the basement because it drains the block cores completely. For this reason, holes are drilled at the base of every block core to permit drainage. The concrete along the slab edge should be removed and replaced for this approach. The drainage is connected to an airtight sump where water is collected.

(c) Perforated drain pipes: A perforated drain pipe installed inside the perimeter of the footing by removing and replacing concrete at the slab edge allows free drainage of the wall into the drain pipe. A dimpled plastic sheeting is placed at the base of the wall and beneath the slab edge. The drainage is connected to an airtight sump where water is collected. This method gives better results when combined with an active soil gas management system that connects with the sump and perimeter drain pipe.

2. Exterior Basement Drainage System

Exterior basement drainage systems have been found to be costlier than interior drainage systems since there is a lot of work, time and external causes such as weather conditions involved. On the other hand, they are essential for preventing exterior foundation damage. Although exterior drainage systems are expensive and time-consuming, people concerned about property and equity maintenance will have long-term benefits. A look at some exterior drainage system approaches:

(a) Grading: One would wonder as to what the soil has to do with a drainage system. Proper grading of the soil around the house would eliminate the entrance of water into the basement. Creating slopes would drive away water before it reaches the basement walls. In fact, this method would not even require a basement drainage.

(b) Open drain: Open drains which are just shallow trenches that are lined with cement or plastic and held together with pebbles or gravel help in collecting water and discarding it before it reaches the basement.

(c) French drain: A French drain is a trench that is covered with gravel or rock and basically redirects surface and ground water. This is useful for exterior drainage systems because the French drain that consists of a perforated pipe not only gets rid of water entering the basement, but draws water out of the soil before it soaks into the soil. The depth of the trench can range from 2-3 feet to 5-6 feet deep. However, lack of maintenance can lead to clogging of these trenches from sediments in the ground that will force water into the basement.

(d) Gutter downspouts: Gutter downspouts that are extended at least ten feet from the house and preferably connected to a rainwater collection system can work out as a reliable source for drainage.

Disadvantages of Interior Basement Drainage System:

1. Extensively finished basement – The basement has to be properly insulated and sealed with appropriate materials which make the process expensive and intrusive. Improper installation can lead to moisture and mold problems and the interior drainage system may require non-invasive termite detection systems in termite-prone areas.

2. Excessively thick basement floor – Thick basement flooring can make the process impractical and, in some cases, impossible to install.

Disadvantages of Exterior Basement Drainage System:

1. Property line constraints – People may not own enough land surrounding their homes for an excavation trench and an area for a machine to operate. Moreover, digging or excavating by hand can be a tedious and expensive process. Excavation can also get difficult in different seasons like the spring if the area has a high water table and is impossible during winters.

2. Safety – Some problems occur on hillsides that will not allow safe excavation. This can lead to extensive damage in terms of landscaping.

3. Urban areas – Some areas are so densely built that outside measures are not practical.

4. Obstructions – Some homes have additions like paved carports, gardens, trees and fences that overhand the foundation drainage and thus make it impossible to excavate those areas rendering external methods inadequate.

5. Utilities – Some areas have underground utilities that make external excavation difficult or impossible.

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

Source Links:

1. http://gratedrain.blogspot.com/
2. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/understanding-interior-basement-waterproofing.html
3. http://www.ehow.com/list_5782927_basement-drainage-ideas.html
4. http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/housingandclothing/components/7051-04.html
5. http://www.basementsystems.com/basement-waterproofing/basement-waterproofing-products/drainage-systems.html

Have you ever thought of the positive effects of ventilating or dehumidifying your basement? Well, in order to understand these factors, let us first look at the causes of poor ventilation in your basement. A wet or damp basement could be a result of wall cracks and pipe leakages and weather conditions such as cold winters and floods. This leads to dampness along with stale air circulating within the basement which creates a favorable environment for the growth of mold and mildew. In contrast, during warm weather conditions, the humidity tends to be on the higher side and lack of ventilation in the basement leads to recurrence of stagnant air, bad odor and growth of mold.

How can this be avoided and what does it have to do with basement dehumidification? Apart from water damage dehumidification and mold remediation, basement dehumidifiers have always been considered as an alternative measure for moisture control, air exchange and ventilation, especially in areas like basements and crawl spaces. On the other hand, there have been issues such as the cost factor, daily maintenance and efficiency between traditional and modern humidifiers.

The benefits of having a high-quality, energy-efficient dehumidifier in your basement will definitely make up for the cost of buying and maintaining it in the long run. These benefits include:

1. Mold: As mentioned earlier, installing a dehumidifier in your home reduces the chances of mold damage, since the cleanup and replacement costs come at very high rates. In fact, many insurance policies do not cover mold-related expenses which leave us with the only option of trying to prevent the damage.

2. Health: The constant circulation of stale air inside the basement obviously affects the immune system, targeting the respiratory functions by inhaling allergens, bacteria, fungi and dust. This leads to colds, asthmas, flus, allergies and other respiratory problems. The installation of a dehumidifier reduces this risk and recycles the stale air circulating in the basement by condensation.

3. Space: Due to the common problems in the basement such as lack of ventilation, dampness and poor air circulation leading to an uncomfortable environment, these areas are not fully utilized as compared to other areas such as the living room. Dehumidifiers will help control and maintain temperature levels in basements at all times, providing cozy and comfortable surroundings.

4. Energy: The air molecules of damp air caused by the presence of moisture in the surroundings are heavier than the normal air molecules and therefore affect air circulation. This in turn leads to excessive or improper utilization of heating and cooling systems which require more energy.

5. Selling Opportunities: Homes with maximum living space have been found to be more attractive to potential buyers. Hence, basements that are well-finished, furnished and comfortable can be made to good use in various ways.

With cutting-edge technology and design at their best in the current scenario, there are energy-efficient dehumidifiers available at reasonable rates. These devices come along with considerable warranties and have improved air quality capable of getting rid of hassles like moisture, mold and condensation.

It is preferable to install basement dehumidifiers in an enclosed area for better efficiency. Installing exhaust fans in the bathrooms and ceiling fans in the basement will help in proper air circulation for sufficient ventilation. Basement dehumidifiers work in a simple way by drawing water vapor from the air and collecting it in a holding tank by condensation and then releasing the water through a drain pipe. They can be installed permanently with the help of a qualified professional or are portable for the user’s convenience to carry it wherever possible.

There are also various types of dehumidifiers. To learn more about Humidex and other dehumidifiers, visit http://blog.keystonebasementsystems.com/?m=200909.

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

Source Links:

1. http://www.breathepureair.com/dehumidifiers_basement.html
2. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/basement-ventilation.html
3. http://hubpages.com/hub/Best-Basement-Dehumidifier-Must-For-Sultry-Basements
4. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/home-dehumidification-basement-dehumidifiers.html
5. http://www.onlinetips.org/basement-ventilation
6. http://www.onlinetips.org/basement-dehumidifier

Basements are usually recommended in areas that have steep slopes and experience extreme cold climatic conditions with low temperature and deep frost penetration. Deeper excavation comes in a package along with the construction and structure of basements, which of course increases costs, but results in a reliable, cozy and comfortable space.

One of the primary foundations in the United States are basements, but they are also accompanied by a number of common issues related to extreme temperatures like the cold winters, heat and humidity, water intrusion mold and an unhealthy environment. Research has shown that 25% of energy costs come from the heat loss of basements. Therefore, a properly sealed and insulated basement with protection from moisture is an additional necessity in reducing energy costs.

There are three basic methods that are used in basement insulation, namely, interior insulation, exterior insulation and insulated concrete forms. However, before sealing up and insulating the basement, one has to initially inspect the basement for any cracks or leaks that can be possible entries for moisture. These cracks and leaks should be repaired and sealed in order to allow the basement to dry completely, especially for insulation of basement walls.

1.  Interior Insulation: This is considered to be one of the simplest and cost-effective means of basement insulation. The installation is usually done behind interior framing or by furring strips placed against the foundation wall with a range of insulation materials. Special care has to be taken to ensure that the wall is completely sealed and dry from moisture which is likely to enter during the cold winters. For this reason, it is always suggested to use a non-absorbent material for the inner layer of the insulation. The disadvantage of interior insulation is that it reduces the usable interior space and is not as effective as exterior insulation in moisture protection.

2.  Exterior Insulation: Exterior insulation is equally important in protecting the basement from any additional moisture and cold weather. The exterior of the walls is insulated to reduce heat loss and condensation, and protect the interior of the basement from any unnecessary damage. Materials like extruded polystyrene are durable and moisture resistant for exterior insulation. This method of insulation can turn to be a little expensive with the type of material used, especially for an existing building. It is therefore advised to have a perimeter drainage system in place.

3. Insulated Concrete Forms: These products are comparatively new and can be installed easily. Hollow foam blocks are stacked together and then filled with concrete. They serve the purpose of both interior and exterior insulation, and are used as surfaces for attaching drywall, brick ties and other finish materials. Some of them are even treated with termite-resistant chemicals.

Is temperature maintenance in your basement only limited to extreme cold weather conditions? Well, the answer is no. As mentioned earlier, basements also face problems in humid conditions which are favorable for the growth of molds, microbes, dust mites and other organisms. These micro-organisms play a vital role in deteriorating health conditions.

Basement dehumidifiers are the best solution to reducing the humidity in the basement to normal recommended levels, which is between 40-60%. They are of two types, the portable unit and the installed unit. The portable unit is user-friendly, whereas the installed unit requires a qualified professional for installation. The latter are usually installed with a fan, heating pump and cooling coil. The moisture in the air is drawn by the fan over the heat pump. This water vapor is then condensed into water through the cooling coil and collected into a holding tank and can be removed either manually or through a drain hose installed in the unit. The installed basement dehumidifier is more efficient as compared to the portable one, which also explains why it is more expensive.

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com.

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

Source Links:

1.http://www.superhvac.com/learn/insulation-basement?pk=ce64e590be3cb34c230d426caff7315d&t=k9sel9a6bfd4%2434145jr2e3kd3b18b62f193e2852c3a75efa
2.http://www.plasticsportalasia.net/wa/plasticsAP~en_GB/function/conversions:/publish/common/upload/foams/styrodur_technical_literature/Styrodur_cellar_insulation.pdf
3.http://www.basement-insulation.org/
4.http://www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/insulation/fact%20sheets/basement%20Insulation%20Technology%20fact.pdf
5.http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/B/AE_basement_insulation.html
6.http://www.quadlock.com/technical_library/bulletins/R-ETRO_Value_of_Basement_Insulation.pdf
7.http://www.buzzle.com/articles/home-dehumidification-basement-dehumidifiers.html

INTRODUCTION :Home remodeling has now become the best option for homeowners, especially for those with budget constraints and those seeking financial assistance from Government entities. Besides adding value to an existing house, it also prepares them to withstand basement flooding and leaking roofs due to heavy rains and snow.As the specific target area for home remodeling varies, so does federal and state grants. An initial study on the terms and conditions of availing grants is advised for all who are willing to seek funding assistance from federal and State grants and incentives.

DO’s BEFORE APPLYING FOR A GRANT

Government grants have been very helpful, especially for home repairs, regardless of whether the house is dilapidated or damaged due to natural disasters.

SEEK HOME REPAIR ESTIMATE

Before applying for home repair grants, an estimate of the costs for improvements or fixing the damage has to be acquired.

Estimation helps to know the grant amount you can qualify for. Most construction and remodeling firms assess the damage or work to be undertaken and then offer free estimates. It is suggested to prepare a detailed list and submit it along with grant applications.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FROM United States HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

The US Department of Housing and Urban Development or HUD is a boon for individuals seeking grants for home repairs. It often assists individuals financially for a safe and secure housing. In some cases, they also pay for home improvements or as a repair for damages.

The HUD has local facilities across US which makes it convenient for applicants. All you have to do is to visit respective websites and fill grant application forms online.

FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)

If your house is damaged due to natural causes, contact the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA). It pays for damages, helping individuals to replace damaged household items.

FEMA officials make their presence known after each natural disaster. For any assistance or guidance you can personally visit their regional office or visit FEMA site online at http://www.fema.gov/ .

CLICK ON GRANTS.GOV

The best place to check for home improvement grants. This website (http://grants.gov/) usually maintains an up-to-date listing of grants provided by the US government. By utilizing the grants.gov search tool, you can watch out for home repair grants. Details about grants, application deadlines and application forms are available online.

SPECIAL GRANTS FOR LOW INCOME FAMILIES

Home repair grants are usually offered to families with low annual income. Grants/Incentives are highly competitive and only those not affording to fix their homes on their own need apply. Many-a-times, officials analyze the finances of the assistance seeker before approval.

UTILIZING USDA HOME IMPROVEMENT GRANTS

USDA offers a maximum grant of $ 7500 to each needy homeowner, including new sewer lines to improve a home’s sanitation values. It can also be used to improve the safety and health of a home, including toxic insulation or lead paint removal.

Homeowners need not pay the grant to the government, provided they reside at the remodeled home for specified years.

Homeowners can utilize USDA govt. grants in the following steps:-

First step: Use USDA’s home improvement grant to enhance the home’s sanitation or safety.  Valid repairs include installation/repair or disposal of sanitary wastes, payment of reconnection fees to electric, water or other utilities, repairs to electrical wiring, repairs to home structure and repairs/remodeling of houses with handicapped or disabled residents.

Second step:Limit use of paneling, painting, landscaping, closet repair or air conditioning if they don’t improve a home’s safety or sanitation.

Third Step:Know that application submission confirms the actual grant usage. Unless and until you file a work completion certificate, a lien is placed on the home.

Fourth Step:Work completion certificate submission eliminates lien, clearing you to pay back the USDA home remodeling grants.

GRANTS FOR HOME INSULATION

Modern society seeks greener earth and design sustainability, pushing towards energy efficiency in every aspect of life. The way in which homes are getting powered is drastically changing. The federal government provides various home insulating grants to homeowners to construct and own eco-friendly and sustainable homes.

Renewable energy grants : On Feb 2009, the American Recovery Reinvestment Act designed grant programs mainly focused on renewable energy. Currently, the US Treasury Department handles cash grants.

In 2009 summer, the Treasury Department outlined the grant guidelines, along with the eligibility criteria to apply. Eligible properties for such grants are listed in U.S. code titles 48, 45 and 26.

Applications from homeowners across the United States are being entertained. Click on the US Treasury department website(http://www.ustreas.gov/)  for more information.

TAX CREDIT FOR RESIDENTIAL RENEWABLE ENERGY

The tax credit for residential renewable energy was established in 2005 by the Energy Policy Act. Extension and additions to original programs have been implemented till 2016 end. Using this incentive, 30 % of the amount paid for energy efficiency equipments can be claimed by homeowners.

Eligible technologies include photovoltaics, solar water heat, geothermal heat pumps, miscellaneous solar powered technologies, wind power and fuel cells.

TAX CREDIT FOR RESIDENTIAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY

This was established by the Federal Energy Policy Act, 2005. Following its expiration in 2007, the sustainable energy consumption incentive was extended till December 31, 2009. Since then, it is well established that tax credits would be made available for all equipments purchased from January 2009 to December 2010.

Eligible equipment involves boilers, furnaces, water heaters, central air conditioners, heat pumps, windows, doors, roofs and building insulations.

Most homeowners can gain 30 % tax credit of the required cost to upgrade old equipments to energy – efficient ones.

LOANS AND GRANTS

Department of Environmental Protection
(http://www.depweb.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/dep_home/5968) offers various loans and grants to help businesses, groups and individuals with environmental issues.

You can also check the website of HomeBuyer Funds (http://www.homebuyerfunds.com/about_us.htm) . One of the largest database with online funds to help you ease your tensions related to funds.

Through this article we have made an attempt to keep our readers informed about the monetary options they can utilize to realize their dream home.

For more on basement related solutions, click on to www.keystonebasementsystems.com

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, an engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

Source links:

http://portal.hud.gov/portal/page/portal/HUD/topics/home_improvements

http://www.ehow.com/list_6023208_home-heating-grants.html

http://www.depweb.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/community/grants___loans/6012

http://www.free-government-grants-online.info/

http://www.handycanadian.com/articles-formulating-a-home-renovation-plan.asp

http://personalbudgeting.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_to_obtain_home_repair_grants

Basement flooding has assumed serious proportions in United States and Canada with nearly 80,000 incidents each year and many others remaining unreported. Apart from the inconvenience and mess, floods cause structural damage and health hazards.
Simple preventive measures to combat basement flooding are undertaken by homeowners, like downspouts extension away from the foundation.  Most other solutions require professional help such as installation of flood-proof device.

This involves explanation of sump pump operation, municipal sewer system and sources of additional information. Basement flooding is a serious problem and has various negative consequences much beyond and above inconvenient disruption and household routine mess.

Recent research has cited the following impacts:-

 Chronically wet houses contribute to respiratory ailments

 Frequent basement flooding occurrences can cause long-term damage to the equipment and building not covered through insurance.

 To compensate for regular claims related to basement flooding, the insurance rates can rise.

 Also, the minimum deductibles can be significantly increased

 With the basement getting prone to frequent flooding, the value of property can depreciate

WHAT ARE THE REASONS THAT CAUSE BASEMENT TO FLOOD?

Before taking appropriate measures, it is important to identify basement flooding and its causes. These vary from problems associated with the municipal sewer systems that serve entire communities to problems within the household basement.

CAUSES FOR BASEMENT FLOODING:-

There are various reasons as to how water can enter the basement. Most likely, water in basement seeps during a period of heavy rainfall or when the snow melts rapidly during a thaw in spring season.

In such cases, your basement can get wet due to:-

 Poor drainage

 Crack or leak in the  basement walls

 Failure of foundation drains (weeping tiles)

 Plugged/leaking downspouts or overflowing eaves troughs

Basement flooding can also occur due to:-

 Wastewater back-up in sewer system (or a combination of rainwater and wastewater from the combined sewer system or sanitary sewer system)

 Blocked connection between main sewer in the street and your home

 Sump pump failure (in certain areas), used for pumping out weeping tile water

Most basements also get vulnerable to various disasters related to Natural River flooding. However, such calamities cannot be addressed by the individual homeowner.

VARIOUS MEASURES TO PREVENT BASEMENT FLOODING

Problems related to basement flooding are diagnosed best by working your way down from downspouts and eavestroughs, to the foundation and lot drainage and thereafter to the plumbing system – both beyond its connection to the municipal sewer system and inside your home. Hence, expert advice will ensure that the right and economical solution is advocated with less hassles.

Downspouts and Eavestroughs

Water simply pours into downspouts off eavestroughs. If the downspouts pump-out  water just beside the foundation, it directly drains to weeping tiles, easily overloading the home’s drainage.

Ensure that the downspouts extend about 6 feet (1.8 meters) from basement wall. Also ensure that the water doesn’t get drained towards the neighbor’s basement walls. It needs to drain toward the street away from the house, the back lane or the rear yard.

If the downspouts get connected to the home’s weeping tile or sewer system, it simply disconnects them.

For this, it is important that you start cleaning debris from the eavestroughs on a regular basis. In case they overflow even when they are clean, replace them with larger size downspouts and eavestroughs.

Lot Grading Technique

If the land in and around the home starts sloping towards the foundation, rainwater first heads straight for the basement weeping tile, causing foundation drainage system to overload. Over a period of time, the land around the home settles and slopes towards the foundation. If the lot slopes inward, grade the lot and fill in the lot for about 6 feet or 1.8 meters around the foundation, this will ensure the land to slope away from the house.

It is important to build up a ground in and around the house such that the water starts draining from the basement walls. It’s also nice to examine the driveways, decks, patios and sidewalks. These can either cause water to drain back towards basement walls or settle over a stretch of time.

It is best to extend the downspouts so that the water doesn’t get collected next to windows and basement walls and just flows away from the house.

Proper form of drainage helps in:-

 Reducing the water amount flowing to the main sewer system and to the home’s sewer system and also reduce the sewer backup risk.

 Reduce water seepage into home through cracks in basement walls or through basement windows

 Maintain stable moisture content of the soil under and around the house so as to decrease cracking and shifting chances.

 In case the water collects next to basement, it could make its way to footings supporting the basement walls.

 Moisture causes the footings to settle or heave

 Just extend your sump pump’s life by decreasing the quantum of work it requires to do.

 Ensure that any drainage related improvements does not cause the water to flow into neighbor’s property.

DEVICES FOR BASEMENT FLOOD PROOFING

If there is an overload in the neighborhood’s or your home drainage system, you would still be in a position to prevent sewage and rain water from backing up into the basement through installation of either single or multiple flood proofing devices, such as back flow valves or sump pumps.

Every installation is unique in its own and few devices (such as back flow valves) would require a plumbing permit. Before you proceed with any installation, check with your qualified plumber or municipal office.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF A SUMP PIT

The drainage system of the sump pit involves a sump pump, a discharge pipe and a sump pit. Set into basement floor, the sump pit starts collecting water from the basement’s weeping tiles. Using a discharge pipe, the pump pushes water outside the house.

The sump pump discharge pipe should be placed such that:-

 It drains water into the segment of the property where the water could be absorbed easily, such as flower bed or lawn

 Fails to direct water onto neighboring streets, sidewalks, lanes or properties

SUMP PIT

Each year, after freeze up, make it a point to clean the pit. Drainage of weeping tile would carry small amount of debris, sand and soil into a pit from the basement foundation. If the water is logged for a long time, it remains in the pit causing a musty smell. If this is the case, pit flushing is extremely easy and best solution. It can be done by by streaming fresh water till the pump removes the stale water.

SUMP PUMP

Each spring, test and check your pump before the rains start. To trigger the pump’s operation, simply stream water into the pit.

At least once a year, remove and clean your pump. Before cleaning or handling, it is vital to disconnect pump from the power source. Very often, check the pit so that you can ensure that it is debris-free. Most pumps contain screen that covers the water intake. Hence, always make it a point to clean up the screen.

DISCHARGE PIPE OF SUMP PUMP

Simply check the place as to where the discharge pipe can leave the house. In case the pipe appears to discharge right against basement walls, the water drains down into weeping tiles, continuing its recycling process through the system. Regularly check the discharge point to ensure there is nothing that would block the flow.

In case the pump frequently runs in winter and if the resulting ice causes hazardous conditions on the sidewalks and the lawn, it is better to take the help of the municipal office.

BACKWATER VALVE

Backwater valve is a wonderful device which blocks sewage in the main overloaded sewer line from backing up into the basement.

If the sewer backs up, then the valve closes automatically. Here, it is important to place a properly installed backwater valve so that the sewage backup stops and hardly comes out through other basement outlets, such as laundry tubs, showers, toilets and sinks. Always ensure that at all times, you can get at the valve.

Regularly check the valve and remove those materials which would prevent the proper operation of the valve. Normally, you would need an inspection and permit for installation of sump pit and backwater valve. As the basement floor would be partly dug up and as it is important to have proper item placement, seek a qualified contractor for plumbing purposes.

MAINTENANCE OF PLUMBING FIXTURE

Always have the qualified plumber inspect the plumbing fixtures and flood-proofing devices (i.e. floor drains, backwater valves, sump pumps etc.) regularly to ensure proper operation. For more safety guidelines and detailed information, check the operating instructions, or simply request the plumber to explain the system details.

ADDITIONAL MEASURES OF PROTECTION

You can also consider many additional measures as a way of flood protection.

BACKUP SUMP PUMP

Very often, severe storms are accompanied with power blackouts. Backup sump pump powered by a battery could be a highly prudent investment. Most pumps are made to simply fit in besides the main area of sump pump and also have the audible alarm, which warns the failure of the main pump, so that one could attend to its replacement or repair. There also are numerous water-powered sump pumps available which run by water and which flows through pump impeller.

BASEMENT FURNISHINGS AND FINISHES

In any event where the basement flooding risk appears possible, it is highly advisable to install impermeable wall and floor finishes like ceramic tiles, to make the cleanup easier and to lessen the damage. Ensure the basement furniture includes legs that keep furniture fabrics above flood waters.

A good alternative to complete broadloom are area rugs as they could be properly cleaned and removed in any flood damage event.

HOW DO FRENCH DRAINS PREVENT THE FLOODING OF BASEMENT

Also known as trench drain, French drain is a simple way to direct the water away from home foundations. It could be buried either underneath the basement floor or alongside the exterior foundation wall or the perimeter wall.

HOW CAN A FRENCH DRAIN BE CONSTRUCTED

A French drain, in simple terms, is a ditch that is slightly sloped away from foundation walls and is downhill. Thereafter, the ditch is lined or filled with gravel or rocks which permit any water to initially pool and then get absorbed and channeled away to the surrounding soils. To know more about French Drains, please read our post published on September 11 – “A basic look at French drains”.

Though one can further simplify the concept, the actual form of construction appears bit complicated. A French drain construction needs to initially consider a properly calculated slope that allows the type of piping material to be used and for proper drainage. You also need to think about the form of fill, like gravel, with the provision of access and with the pipe laying.

Thanks to selective landscaping, the entire system is kept in place. However, it still permits proper distribution of water.

Though the experienced and the do-it-yourself ones would like to tackle French drain installation project, it is better to appoint a professional for such task. In this manner, if there is anything which goes wrong, it could get corrected without unnecessary additional expense or without any worries.

On the other hand, in an under construction stage, majority of new houses now have the installation of French drain, externally running around the foundation walls.

WHERE DOES THE WATER GO

There are various ways by which French drain water can get distributed. For instance, it could get tied to the existing downspout. However, the water flushes back towards the house.

The water can be let out to the street club alternatively. However, this won’t be allowable under certain ordinances and city bylaws. Help from a professional will help to overcome such issues.
With the help of a larger lot, it becomes possible to use a French drain to direct water to the lawn. However, in reality, this simply moves wet region to the different area of the yard. Maintain high care against directing it into your neighbor’s yard.

LAW AND FRENCH DRAINS

While French drain appears to be a nice idea to prevent basement flooding, if you don’t do the initial checking, you may end in hot water or greater trouble. Before you dig, ensure you have the requisite permission. Some bylaws and area city codes prevent the building of drainage systems which affect the property of another neighbor adversely.

French drain construction puts unwanted water into the next-door neighbor’s yard, causing unwanted problems. Before you dig, you are also required to call local utility firms to avoid any pipes, underground cables, etc.

Overall, this project is better left to be completed under the able-guidance of a professional. All in all, hiring a black hole operator for digging and a surveyor for getting the slope right could be the best bet.

HOW CAN BATTERY BACK-UP PUMP OR FRENCH DRAIN GENERATOR BRIDGE GAP DURING POWER OUTAGES

There are many instances where the primary sump pump fails due to power outage or just wear and tear. An emergency backup sump pump is the best and the most intelligent solution to the problems that may arise due to the sudden failure of the primary sump pump.

Depending upon the provision of both water and electrical power in the basement area, one can choose to install either the Battery Backup Sump Pump System or the Water Powered Sump Pump System.  The battery backup sump pump system is powered by DC electricity and relies upon an included battery charger to maintain full battery charge always. It also provides additional capacity. During the power outage, the water level rises to activate the emergency backup sump pump. This is easy to install and sufficient to prevent basement flooding in over 99% of temporary power cuts.

Water powered sump pump systems are the most worry-free backup sump pump technology available in the market today. It requires zero maintenance with just a simple test every 6 months to check the unit functionality. Instead of using electrical power, these pumps rely on the force generated by the flowing city water to suck the water out of the basement sump. These are installed as independent units and can remove nearly 2 gallons of water from the basement for unlimited time as long as there is no interruption from the city water is faced.

Another alternative which is generally not the most practical solution is the installation of the automatic/ gas powered generators to keep the basement dry even during floods.

Check with a professional in your area who can help you take the best and effective measure to keep your basement dry even during the rains.  If you are a resident of Pennsylvania suffering from basement problems and if your house is located in any of these regions, call us at 800 771 – 3244 or visit us at http://www.keystonebasementsystems.com/about-us.html. Schedule your appointment and seek solution to your basement woes, now!

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, a engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”

Basement flooring is a highly important aspect for homeowners who wish to utilize their basement to the fullest. Besides, good basement flooring also enhances the overall beauty of the basement space.

Making the right floor choice for the basement is tricky as one has to consider about the probability of moisture looming through the floors. The options that are available in the market for a basement flooring redo are porcelain tiles, ceramics, laminate and hardwood floor. In this article we will share our thoughts to help you take an informed decision.

Selecting appropriate basement flooring becomes difficult especially if the basement problem appears complicated. For all basements, the biggest issue is unwanted moisture. Seeping below concrete, moisture weakens the adhesive bond used for tiles or floors to make the hardwood floors warp and buckle and also make the carpets get an elusive and stinky smell due to mold growth.

Another reason why it is a daunting task to select basement flooring is the humid environment of basement rooms and their high susceptibility to flooding from outdoor seepage and leakage pipes. Most options related to basement flooring include some sort of trade-off. The best way to start, however, is by knowing the options. Assuming that your basement is dry (either after having the moisture issues treated or naturally), you can start considering flooring based options. Below are some of the choices:-

 Wood – One of the least viable of all the choices, wood flooring tends to rot, warp and buckle under highly moist conditions observed in most basements.

 Carpet – Though carpet is inexpensive, it is more prone to mildew and mold issues – especially if flooding or leaks are a problem. However, padding carpet with anti-microbial lining may mitigate some issues related to moisture.

 Tile - Tile is water resistant and decorative option, which could get directly installed to the concrete floor in good condition and is consistently dry. In other instances, a water resistant sub-floor will be advisable.

 Laminates – Laminate based flooring would give the elegant look of wood with high moisture resistance. Since laminates are floating floors, they never get directly attached to the sub-floor. However, if you face any problems related to the lamination flooring , the repairs could be cumbersome.

 Concrete – If you have a concrete floor ready, you can take the full advantage as concrete doesn’t get stained or painted. A polished concrete floor gives the plush look. Properly constructed concrete basement does not crack or leak water.

BASEMENT MOISTURE

Having discussed all the possible basement floor options to combat moisture related problems one would agree that wood floors can never be the ideal choice. Mold growth cases related to moisture is more common to wood floors. The risk will persist even if extra care to seal the wood floor with carpet or using a hardwood to the basement is decided on.  It is best to avoid wood flooring for basements with excessive moisture related problems.

However, if you are insistent about wood floors then you may consider engineered floor as an option. Engineered floors are the outcome of using three to five layers of different hardwood materials with a high density fiberboard core. This flooring is known to have a higher resiliency to humidity.

A decision on finishing the basement floor can be taken based on the utility of the room, personal taste and the budget on hand.

ADVANTAGES OF A SUB-FLOOR

The most comfortable options for flooring include sub-floor installations. . A sub-floor keeps the vinyl, linoleum, tile or whichever flooring you select away from any direct contact with cold concrete. Adequate insulation provided by the sub-floor makes the walking surface warm and comfortable. It would also dry up the finished floor and, in the event of any plumbing leak; the sub-floor would permit the finished floor to dry. Any sort of flooring could be installed on the sub-floor – wood, bamboo, tile, linoleum, carpet, etc.

RADIANT HEAT SYSTEM USAGE FOR FLOORING BASEMENTS

Basement floors are generally known for cold and damp attributes that are unbearable to the bare foot. Radiant heating systems are installed to distribute consistent warm temperature that is absorbed by the basement surrounding. When compared to a forced air systems, this technology guarantees a cleaner room without stirring up dust or allergens. According to studies conducted in houses with radiant heating, dust mite occurrence has decreased by 80%.  With this technology becoming popular more choices in terms of energy efficiency, environmental considerations and simplicity are available to the purchaser.

If you have any basement moisture based problem, it is better to resolve the issue, before installing any type of floor treatment, including carpet. To resolve moisture based problems, work with a licensed contractor.

If you are a resident of Pennsylvania suffering from basement problems, call us at 800-771-3244 or visit us at http://www.keystonebasementsystems.com/about-us.html.

You may also contact Aaron Stull -IAQA expert on the official IAQ site: – Email Member

“Keystone Basement Systems, Inc. is a foundation repair company. KBS is not, however, a engineering firm and should not be considered as such.”